Revision of the Hornbostel-Sachs Classification of Musical Instruments by the MIMO Consortium

Co-funded by the European Union through the eContentplus programme

Introduction

The MIMO (Musical Instrument Museums Online) project has created a single access point to digital content and information on the collections of musical instruments held in a consortium of European museums. Co-funded by the European Union through the eContentplus programme, the project has entailed the harvesting of the digital content of the museums’ collections databases, to be made available online through EUROPEANA, the portal to the digital resources of Europe's museums, libraries, archives and audio-visual collections. The MIMO project has also involved the revision of the Hornbostel Sachs classification of musical instruments, with the main aim of classifying instruments such those in the new Electrophones class 5, invented since the publication of the original scheme of 1914 by Erich M. von Hornbostel and Curt Sachs.ⁱ A number of scholars have at various times revised or extended the scheme. The MIMO consortium’s version is closely based on the revised version (classes 1-4) by Jeremy Montaguⁱⁱ to whom the consortium owes a debt of gratitude for generously sharing with us with us all resources associated with it; we also thank him and the editors of Muzyka for permitting the reproduction of the classification and some of the introductory comments in his article. The classification has been revised by the MIMO working group for classification and thesauri, chaired by Margaret Birley (The Horniman Museum, London) with contributions from many different members. Especial thanks are due to Arnold Myers (University of Edinburgh) and to Saskia Willaert (Musical Instrument Museum, Brussels). This version of classification has been incorporated within the databases of a number of the museums in the MIMO project.

Many of the new categories that have been introduced for instruments in classes 1-4 derive from the work of Jeremy Montagu. One is the addition of ‘retreating reeds’, a term used by Francis Galpinⁱⁱⁱ to describe what are usually wood or cane aerophones of tubular form, with a proximal open end and a distal end formed by natural node that is split in half, or built in two halves that are closed with a binding. Air blown through the tube forces the two halves to open and close periodically, creating sound. Since the vibrating air is not confined within the tube, ‘retreating reeds’ fall within the free aerophones category. Montagu’s ‘Dilating reeds’ category, within wind instruments proper, is for reeds made ‘from stalks of plants such as rice with vertical slits in the sides. When blown from one end of the stalk, the slits dilate under the air pressure, opening and closing.’^iv ‘Edgetone instruments that are not flutes’^v include ‘double disks, with a central hole passing through both sides of the disk, that one places between the lips and the teeth. These are made from tinplate, bottle-tops, or fruit stones, and are sometimes called widgeon whistles or labial whistles, and one plays them by breathing in and out through the hole.’^vi

Performance techniques in instruments unknown to the authors in 1914 have also given rise to new categories in the classification. ‘Concussion bells’ (111.143) were added by Montagu to the classification ‘after acquiring a pair of Nigerian double-bells that are struck concussively against each other’.^vii

In the membranophones group, the MIMO consortium has expanded and renamed the kettledrums section to include vessel drums of all shapes in which the single membrane and body form an enclosed entity, and has introduced a new category of vase-shaped drums many of which are represented in the collections of the Royal Museum of Central Africa in Tervuren, Belgium, one of the partners in the project. Museums often have no information as to whether or not both heads of a double-membrane tubular drum are struck, and the new subdivisions have an inclusive category for drums with two membranes, one of which may or may not be played.

Since the classification deals with instruments world-wide, the MIMO consortium advocates changes to nomenclature in the aerophones section, with the use of the more neutral term ‘reedpipes’ for all wind instruments proper played with a reed as an alternative to ‘oboes’ and ‘clarinets’ which are closely associated with western orchestral instruments with specific bore-profiles. ‘Horns’ and ‘trumpets’ may similarly evoke European brasswind. In addition to replacing these terms with ‘labrosones’,^viii thus reinforcing awareness of the fact that not all lip-vibrated instruments are made of brass, the MIMO consortium has also expanded the classification to deal with specific types of European brass instruments. There are numerous examples in European collections, and the existing Hornbostel-Sachs classification does not succeed in dividing them into classes which correspond to how the instruments are treated by makers, musicians, or composers. Arnold Myers has extended the Hornbostel-Sachs classes to more usefully divide brasswind. This is particularly difficult since one accepted species of instrument can merge into another without a clearly defined boundary. The principles of division are:

          A. chromatic capability provided by: tone-holes / slides / valves

This distinction is easily recognised by non-specialists.

          B. Bore profile is: conical / intermediate / cylindrical

No instruments are perfectly conical or completely cylindrical, but these terms are widely used and have an intuitive meaning. There is no clear boundary between these profiles. However, most users will probably recognise the examples given and be able to apply the classification scheme.

          C. Bore is: narrow / wide

Again, there is no clear boundary between these profiles, but most users will probably recognise the examples given.

          D. Air column is: short (less than 2m) / long (more than 2m)

Clearly, small and large instruments are different species in most cases.

The air column length of valved instruments is in most cases the shortest possible provided by the valves. There are some anomalies and problems (such as distinguishing the larger valve trumpets from the small valve trombones) but the scheme does allow useful subdivision to be made.

The classification of Electrophones owes its coverage of the field to the scholarship of Maarten Quanten of the Musical Instrument Museum in Brussels, and his thesis (in the course of development) that categorises components of electrophones as a series of interchangeable modules. While his full classification reflects the use of electrophones in the sound workshop, in composition and in performance, the modified and abbreviated version devised for the MIMO project uses separate categories for instruments and modules, facilitating their allocation to different classes by non-specialists. An original aim of the MIMO project was to develop a ‘simplified version of Hornbostel Sachs classification’ and this section of the classification remains within this remit. We are grateful to Maarten Quanten for his work, also to Dr Tim Boon of the Science Museum in London and Professor Clive Greated of the University of Edinburgh for their advice on this section of the classification. Unmodified acoustic instruments with attached microphones or pickups are classed within groups 1-4, according to the primary source of acoustic or mechanical vibration. All other instruments that use materials generating acoustic sounds, mechanically-driven signal sources, electronically stored data or electronic circuitry and produce electrical signals that are passed to a loudspeaker to deliver sound fall within the Electrophones group (5). The main subdivisions of the electrophones group include those identified by Hugh Davies^ix and other authors^x as electroacoustic, electromechanical and electronic instruments.

In the Introduction to their classification, Sachs and Hornbostel identified ways of creating numerical codes for instruments such as bagpipes, which comprise more than one category, giving examples of ways in which the code might be reconfigured to highlight different aspects of a given instrument. Since the numerical codes must be used consistently within the databases of the different MIMO partners, in the practical application of Hornbostel Sachs numbers to multicategory instruments within this digital context none of the abbreviations suggested by Hornbostel and Sachs have been used, rather, the codes have been used in full, without colons or brackets. As a general principle, the numerical code for any suffix that applies (or suffixes that apply) to all the categories appears at the end of the series of numbers. Thus the full numerical code for the Highland bagpipe would appear as 422.112-7+422.22-62 Double-reed chanter, conical bore (-7 with fingerholes) + set of single-reed drones with cylindrical bore (-62) flexible air reservoir for all pipes.

Classification

This revision of the Hornbostel-Sachs classification is published on the CIMCIM website in two versions. In this version none of the revisions made by Jeremy Montagu or by the MIMO Consortium to the original classification as published in translation in the Galpin Society Journal in 1961 are shown. Another version of this document showing all revisions is published separately on the CIMCIM website.

1 IDIOPHONES The substance of the instrument itself, owing to its solidity and elasticity, vibrates and may radiate sound^xi without requiring stretched membranes or strings

11 Struck idiophones The instrument is made to vibrate by being struck upon

111 Idiophones struck directly The player himself executes the movement of striking; whether by mechanical intermediate devices, beaters, keyboards, or by pulling ropes, etc., is immaterial; it is definitive that the player can apply clearly defined individual strokes and that the instrument itself is equipped for this kind of percussion

111.1 Concussion idiophones or clappers Two or more complementary sonorous parts are struck against each other

111.11 Concussion sticks or stick clappers Vietnam, India, Marshall Is.

111.12 Concussion plaques or plaque clappers China, India

111.13 Concussion troughs or trough clappers Burma [Myanmar]

111.14 Concussion vessels or vessel clappers Even a slight hollow in the surface of a board counts as a vessel

111.141 Castanets Vessel clappers, either natural, or artificially hollowed out

111.142 Cymbals Vessel clappers with everted rim

111.143 Concussion bells Nigeria

111.2 Percussion idiophones The instrument is struck either with a non-sonorous object (hand, stick, striker) or against a non-sonorous object (human body, the ground)

111.21 Percussion sticks

111.211 (Individual) percussion sticks Japan, Vietnam, Balkans; also the triangle

111.212 Sets of percussion sticks Several percussion sticks of different pitch are combined to form a single instrument All xylophones

111.22 Percussion plaques

111.221 (Individual) percussion plaques In the oriental Christian Church

111.222 Sets of percussion plaques Lithophone (China), and most metallophones

111.23 Percussion tubes

111.231 (Individual) percussion tubes Tubular bell

NB Not slit drums, which are a sub-group of bells, 111.243

111.232 Sets of percussion tubes Tubaphon, tubular xylophone

111.24 Percussion vessels

111.241 Gongs The vibration is strongest near the vertex

111.241.1 (Individual) gongs S. and E. Asia including the so-called metal drums, or rather kettle-gongs^xii

111.241.11 Bossed gongs, flat gongs (with flange) and intermediate types

111.241.12 Gongs with divided surface sounding different pitches Steel drum (Caribbean)

111.241.2 Sets of gongs [gong chimes]

111.241.21 Sets of bossed, flat gongs (with flange) and intermediate types S.E.Asia, E. Asia

111.241.22 Sets of gongs with divided surface sounding different pitches Steel drums (Caribbean)

111.242 Bells The vibration is weakest near the vertex

111.242.1 (Individual) Bells

111.242.11 Resting bells The cup is placed on the palm of the hand or on a cushion; its mouth faces upwards China, Indo-China, Japan

111.242.12 Suspended bells The bell is suspended from the apex

111.242.121 Suspended bells struck from the outside No striker is attached inside the bell, there being a separate beater

111.242.122 Clapper bells A striker (clapper) is attached inside the bell

111.242.123 Bells with attached external clapper/s

111.242.2 Sets of bells [chimes] (subdivided as 111.242.1):

111.242.21 Sets of resting bells

111.242.22 Sets of suspended bells

111.242.221 Sets of suspended bells struck from the outside

111.242.222 Sets of clapper bells

111.242.223 Sets of bells with attached external clappers

111.243 Slit Drums

111.244 Percussion troughs e.g. some forms of ‘slit drum’ such as Fijian lali where the whole ‘mouth’ is open

111.25 Percussion boulders Rock gongs

112 Indirectly struck idiophones The player himself does not go through the movement of striking; percussion results indirectly through some other movement by the player. The intention of the instrument is to yield clusters of sounds or noises, and not to let individual strokes be perceived

112.1 Shaken idiophones or rattles The player executes a shaking motion

112.11 Suspension rattles Perforated idiophones are mounted together, and shaken to strike against each other

112.111 Strung rattles Rattling objects are strung in rows on a cord

Necklaces with rows of shells

112.112 Stick rattles Rattling objects are strung on a bar (or ring) Sistrum with rings

112.12 Frame rattles Rattling objects are attached to a carrier against which they strike

112.121 Pendant rattles Rattling objects are hung from a frame

Dancing shield with rattling rings

112.122 Sliding rattles Non-sonorous objects slide to and fro in the slots of the sonorous object so that the latter is made to vibrate; or sonorous objects slide to and fro in the slots of a non-sonorous object, to be set in vibration by the impacts Anklung, sistrum with rods

112.13 Vessel rattles Rattling objects enclosed in a vessel strike against each other or against the walls of the vessel, or usually against both. NB The Benue gourd rattles with handle, in which the rattling objects, instead of being enclosed, are knotted into a net slipped over the outer surface, count as a variety of vessel rattle Fruit shells with seeds, ‘pellet bells’ enclosing loose percussion pellets

112.2 Scraped idiophones The player causes a scraping movement directly or indirectly: a non-sonorous object moves along the notched surface of a sonorous object, to be alternately lifted off the teeth and flicked against them; or an elastic sonorous object moves along the surface of a notched non-sonorous object to cause a series of impacts. This group must not be confused with that of friction idiophones

112.21 Scraped sticks A notched stick is scraped with a little stick

112.211 Scraped sticks without resonator S. America, India (notched musical bow), Congo

112.212 Scraped sticks with resonator Usumbara, E. Asia (tiger)

112.22 Scraped tubes S. India

112.23 Scraped vessels The corrugated surface of a vessel is scraped S. America, Congo region

112.24 Scraped wheels or cog rattles A cog wheel, whose axle serves as the handle, and a tongue fixed in a frame which is free to turn on the handle; when whirled, the tongue strikes the teeth of the wheel one after another Europe, India

112.25 Scraped boards Jazz washboard

112.3 Split idiophones Instruments in the shape of two springy arms connected at one end and touching at the other; (in some examples) the arms are forced apart by a little stick, to jingle or vibrate on recoil China (huan t'u), Malacca now West Malaysia, Iran (qašik), Balkans

12 Lamellaphones^xiii (or plucked idiophones) Lamellae, i.e. elastic plaques, fixed at one end, are flexed and then released to return to their position of rest

121 In the form of a frame The lamella vibrates within a frame or hoop

121.1 Clack idiophones (cricri) The lamella is carved in the surface of a fruit shell, which serves as a resonator Melanesia

121.2 Guimbardes (trumps,^xiv also known as jew’s harps) The lamella is mounted in a rod- or plaque-shaped frame and depends on the player’s mouth cavity for resonance

121.21 Idioglot guimbardes The lamella is carved in the frame itself, its base remaining joined to the frame India, Indonesia, Melanesia

121.22 Heteroglot guimbardes A lamella is attached to a frame

121.221 (Single) heteroglot guimbardes Europe, India, China

121.222 Sets of heteroglot guimbardes Several heteroglot guimbardes of different pitches are combined to form a single instrument Aura

122 In board- or comb-form The lamellae are attached to a board or cut out from a board like the teeth of a comb

122.1 With laced-on, or hooked-in^xv lamellae

122.11 Without resonator All lamellaphones^xvi on a plain board

122.12 With resonator All lamellaphones with a box or bowl below the board

122.2 With cut-out lamellae (musical boxes) Pins on a cylinder pluck the lamellae

13 Friction Idiophones The instrument is made to vibrate by friction

131 Friction sticks

131.1 (Individual) friction sticks Sandpaper blocks

131.2 Sets of friction sticks

131.21 With direct friction The sticks themselves are rubbed Nail fiddle, nail piano, Stockspiele

131.22 With indirect friction The sticks are connected with others which are rubbed and, by transmitting their longitudinal vibration, stimulate transverse vibration in the former Chladni’s euphon

132 Friction plaques

132.1 (Individual) friction plaques (unknown)

132.2 Sets of friction plaques [livika] New Ireland

133 Friction vessels

133.1 (Individual) friction vessels Brazil (tortoise shell)

133.2 Sets of friction vessels Verillon (glass armonica)

134 Friction sheet Theatrical wind machine

14 Blown idiophones The instrument is made to vibrate by being blown upon

141 Blown sticks

141.1 (Individual) blown sticks Unknown

141.2 Sets of blown sticks Aeolsklavier

142 Blown plaques

142.1 (Individual) blown plaques Unknown

142.2 Sets of blown plaques Piano chanteur

15 Metal sheets the vibrating material consists of a flexible sheet of metal

151 Played by friction Bowed musical saw

152 Directly struck Hammered musical saw, theatrical thunder sheet played with a hammer^xvii

153 Played by shaking Theatrical thunder sheet (played without hammer)

154 Shaken and indirectly struck Flexatone

16 Flexed diaphragms A diaphragm is flexed when a string passing through its centre is pulled, before returning to rest. England, modified yoghurt pot or metal watering-can rose mimicking the sound of a clucking cockerel

Suffixes for use with any division of idiophones:

-1 The vibrations are coupled with a transducer to create an electrical signal that is processed through an amplifier and loudspeaker (Applied only to instruments that have not been structurally modified or designed to be played through a loudspeaker; all these are classed as Electrophones in Group 5)

-11 With non-integral microphones

-12 With non-integral pickups

-8 With keyboard

-9 Mechanically driven

2 MEMBRANOPHONES The sound is excited by tightly stretched membranes

21 Struck drums The membranes are struck

211 Drums struck directly The player himself executes the movement of striking; this includes striking by any intermediate devices, such as beaters, keyboards, etc; drums that are shaken are excluded

211.1 Vessel drums The single playing head encloses a body in the form of a vessel that is curvilinear or rectilinear in profile Kettledrums

211.11 Separate vessel drums European timpani

211.12 Sets of vessel drums W. Asian permanently joined pairs of kettledrums

211.2 Tubular drums The body is tubular, with membranes enclosing one or both ends

211.21 Cylindrical drums The diameter is essentially the same at the middle and the ends. Occasionally the ends will taper slightly or have projecting discs

211.211 Single-skin cylindrical drums The drum has only one membrane and the opposite end is open

211.211.1 Individual single-skin cylindrical drums, with single membranes and open ends Malacca, now West Malaysia

211.211.2 Sets of single-skin cylindrical drums, with single membranes and open ends

211.212 Double-skin cylindrical drums, the drum has two ^xviii membranes

211.212.1 Individual double-skin cylindrical drums

211.212.11 Individual double-skin cylindrical drums, one skin used for playing Side drum, tenor drum, tambourin de Provence

211.212.12 Individual double-skin cylindrical drums, both heads played Turkey (davul). Almost world-wide (bass drum in marching band).

211.212.2 Sets of double-skin cylindrical drums

211.212.21 Sets of double-skin cylindrical drums with single playing heads USA/Europe drum kit

211.212.22 Sets of double-skin cylindrical drums, both heads played

211.22 Barrel-shaped drums The diameter is larger at the middle than at the ends; the body is curvilinear Asia, Africa, Ancient Mexico

Subdivisions as for 211.21

211.221 Single-skin barrel drums

211.221.1 Individual single-skin barrel drums

211.221.2 Sets of single-skin barrel drums

211.222 Double-skin barrel drums

211.222.1 Individual double-skin barrel drums

211.222.11 Individual double-skin barrel drums, one skin used for playing

211.222.12 Individual double-skin barrel drums, both heads played

211.222.2 Sets of double-skin barrel drums

211.222.21 Sets of double-skin barrel drums with single playing heads

211.222.22 Sets of double-skin barrel drums, both heads played

211.23 Double-conical drums The diameter is larger at the middle than at the ends; the body is rectilinear with angular profile India (mrdanga, pakhavaj)

Subdivisions as for 211.21

211.231 Single-skin double-conical drums

211.231.1 Individual single-skin double-conical drums

211.231.2 Sets of single-skin double-conical drums

211.232 Double-skin double-conical drums

211.232.1 Individual double-skin double-conical drums

211.232.11 Individual double-skin double-conical drums, one skin used for playing

211.232.12 Individual double-skin double-conical drums, both heads played

211.232.2 Sets of double-skin double-conical drums

211.232.21 Sets of double-skin double-conical drums with single playing heads

211.232.22 Sets of double-skin double-conical drums, both heads played

211.24 Hourglass-shaped drums The diameter is smaller at the middle than at the ends Asia, Melanesia, E. Africa

Subdivisions as for 211.21

211.241 Single-skin hourglass-shaped drums

211.241.1 Individual single-skin hourglass-shaped drums

211.241.2 Sets of single-skin hourglass-shaped drums

211.242 Double-skin hourglass-shaped drums

211.242.1 Individual double-skin hourglass-shaped drums

211.242.11 Individual double-skin hourglass-shaped drums, one skin used for playing

211.242.12 Individual double-skin hourglass-shaped drums, both heads played

211.242.2 Sets of double-skin hourglass-shaped drums

211.242.21 Sets of double-skin hourglass-shaped drums with single playing heads

211.242.22 Sets of double-skin hourglass-shaped drums, both heads played

211.25 Conical drums The diameter at the ends differ considerably; some minor departures from strict conicity, inevitably met, are disregarded here

211.251 Single-skin conical drums

211.251.1 Individual single-skin conical drums

211.251.2 Sets of single-skin conical drums

211.252 Double-skin conical drums

211.252.1 Individual double-skin conical drums

211.252.11 Individual double-skin conical drums, one skin used for playing

211.252.12 Individual double-skin conical drums, both heads played

211.252.2 Sets of double-skin conical drums

211.252.21 Sets of double-skin conical drums with single playing heads

211.252.22 Sets of double-skin conical drums, both heads played

211.26 Goblet-shaped drums The body consists of a main section which is either cup shaped or cylindrical, and a slender stem; borderline cases of this basic design like those occurring notably in Indonesia, do not affect the identification, so long as a cylindrical form is not in fact reached Darabukka

211.27 Cylindro-conical drums. The body is in two sections, a cylindrical upper and a conical lower section

211.271 Single-skin cylindro-conical drums

211.271.1 Individual single-skin cylindro-conical drums. Sometimes the foot is flared.

211.271.2 Sets of single-skin cylindro-conical drums

211.272 Double-skin cylindro-conical drums

211.272.1 Individual double-skin cylindro-conical drums

211.272.11 Individual double-skin cylindro-conical drums, one skin used for playing Uganda drum

211.272.12 Individual double-skin cylindro-conical drums, both heads played

211.272.2 Sets of double-skin cylindro-conical drums

211.272.21 Sets of double-skin cylindro-conical drums with single playing heads Uganda (Entenga drum chime)

211.272.22 Sets of double-skin cylindro-conical drums, both heads played

211.28 Vase-shaped drums. The body is waisted and rests on an open foot that may be flared. The upper section is conical, and the lower section, which is rectilinear or curvilinear in profile, tapers towards the foot. These drums have a single membrane

211.3 Frame drums The depth of the body does not exceed the radius of the membrane. NB The European side-drum, even in its most shallow form, is a development from the long cylindrical drum and hence is not included among frame drums

211.31 Frame drums (without handle)

211.311 Single-skin frame drums Tambourine

211.312 Double-skin frame drums N. Africa, Portugal

211.32 Frame drum with handle A stick is attached to the frame in line with its diameter

211.321 Single-skin frame drums with handle Inuit

211.322 Double-skin frame drums with handle Tibet

212 Rattle drums (sub-divisions as for drums struck directly, 211) The drum is shaken; percussion is by impact of pendant or enclosed pellets, or similar objects India, Tibet

212.1 Vessel rattle drums

212.2 Tubular rattle drums

212.21 Cylindrical rattle drums

212.211 Individual cylindrical rattle drums

212.212 Sets of cylindrical rattle drums

212.22 Barrel-shaped rattle drums

212.221 Individual barrel-shaped rattle drums

212.222 Sets of barrel-shaped rattle drums

212.23 Double-conical rattle drums

212.231 Individual double-conical rattle drums

212.232 Sets of double-conical rattle drums

212.24 Hourglass-shaped rattle drums

212.241 Individual hourglass-shaped rattle drums

212.242 Sets of hourglass-shaped rattle drums

212.3 Frame rattle drums

212.31 Single-skin frame rattle drums

212.32 Double-skin frame rattle drums

212.321 Individual double-skin frame rattle drums

212.322 Sets of double-skin frame rattle drums

23 Friction drums The membrane is made to vibrate by friction

231 Friction drums with stick A stick in contact with the membrane is either itself rubbed, or is employed to rub the membrane

231.1 With inserted stick The stick passes through a hole in the membrane

231.11 Friction drums with fixed stick The stick cannot be moved; the stick alone is subjected to friction by rubbing Africa

231.12 Friction drums with semi-fixed stick The stick is movable to a sufficient extent to rub the membrane when it is itself rubbed by the hand Africa

231.13 Friction drums with free stick The stick can be moved freely; it is not itself rubbed, but is employed to rub the membrane Venezuela

231.2 With tied stick The stick is tied to the membrane in an upright position Europe

232 Friction drum with cord A cord, attached to the membrane, is rubbed

232.1 Stationary friction drums with friction cord the drum is held stationary Europe, Africa

232.11 Single-skin stationary drums with friction-cord

232.12 Double-skin stationary drums with friction-cord

232.2 Friction drum with whirling stick The drum is whirled on a cord which rubs on a [resined] notch in the holding stick Waldteufel [cardboard buzzer] (Europe, India, E. Africa)

233 Hand friction drums The membrane is rubbed by the hand

NB This does not include the orchestral tambourine which remains a frame drum

24 Singing membranes (Kazoos) The membrane is made to vibrate by speaking or singing into it; the membrane does not yield a note of its own but merely modifies the voice Europe, W. Africa

241 Free kazoos The membrane is incited directly, without the wind first passing through a chamber Comb-and-paper

242 Tube- or vessel-kazoos The membrane is placed on top of a tube or box Africa; while also E. Asian flutes with a lateral hole sealed by a membrane, exhibit an affinity with the principle of the tube kazoo

Suffixes for use with any division of membranophones:

-1 The vibrations are coupled with a transducer to create an electrical signal that is processed through an amplifier and loudspeaker (Applied only to instruments that have not been structurally modified or designed to be played through a loudspeaker; all these are classed as Electrophones in Group 5)

-11 With non-integral microphones

-12 With non-integral pickups

-6 With membrane glued to drum

-7 With membrane nailed to drum

-8 With membrane laced to drum

-81 Cord-(ribbon-) bracing The cords are stretched from membrane to membrane or arranged in the form of a net, without employing any of the devices described below

-811 With tension ligature Cross ribbons or cords are tied round the middle of the lacing to increase its tension Sri Lanka
-812 With tension loops The cords are laced in a zigzag; every pair of strings is caught together with a small ring or loop India

-813 With wedge-bracing Wedges are inserted between the wall of the drum and the cords of the lacing; by adjusting the position of the wedges it is possible to control the tension India, Indonesia, Africa

-82 Cord-and-hide bracing The cords are laced at the lower end to a non-sonorous piece of hide Africa

-83 Cord-and-board bracing The cords are laced to an auxiliary board at the lower end Sumatra

-84 Cord-and-flange bracing The cords are laced at the lower end to a flange carved from the solid Africa

-85 Cord-and-belt bracing The cords are laced at the lower end to a belt of different material India

-86 Cord-and-peg bracing The cords are laced at the lower end to pegs stuck into the wall of the drum Africa

NB -82 to -86 are sub-divided as -81 above

-9 With membrane lapped on A ring is slipped over the edge of the membrane

-91 With membrane lapped onto a ring of cord Africa

-92 With membrane lapped onto a hoop

-921 With mechanism Machine timpani

-9211 With pedals Pedal timpani

3 CHORDOPHONES One or more strings are stretched between fixed points

31 Simple chordophones or zithers The instrument consists solely of a string bearer, or of a string bearer with a resonator which is not integral and can be detached without destroying the sound-producing apparatus

311 Bar zithers The string bearer is bar-shaped; it may be a board placed edgewise

311.1 Musical bows The string bearer is flexible (and curved)

311.11 ldiochord musical bows The string is cut from the bark of the cane, remaining attached at each end

311.111 Mono-idiochord musical bows The bow has one idiochord string only New Guinea (Sepik R.), Togo

311.112 Poly-idiochord musical bows or harp-bows The bow has several idiochord strings which pass over a toothed stick or bridge W. Africa (Fan)

311.12 Heterochord musical bows The string is of separate material from the bearer

311.121 Mono-heterochord musical bows The bow has one heterochord string only

311.121.1 Without resonator NB If a separate, unattached resonator is used, the specimen belongs to 311.121.21. The human mouth is not to be taken into account as a resonator

311.121.11 Without tuning noose Africa (ganza, samuius, to)

311.121.12 With tuning noose A fibre noose is passed round the string, dividing it into two sections South-equatorial Africa (n’kungo, uta)

311.121.2 With resonator

311.121.21 With independent resonator Borneo (busoi)

311.121.22 With resonator attached

311.121.221 Without tuning noose S. Africa (hade, thomo)

311.121.222 With tuning noose S. Africa, Madagascar (gubo, hungo, bobre)

311.122 Poly-heterochord musical bows The bow has several heterochord strings

311.122.1 Without tuning noose Oceania (kalove)

311.122.2 With tuning noose Oceania (pagolo)

311.2 Stick zithers The string carrier is rigid

311.21 Musical bow cum stick The string bearer has one flexible, curved end. NB Stick zithers with both ends flexible and curved, like the Basuto bow, are counted as musical bows India

311.22 (True) stick zithers NB Round sticks which happen to be hollow by chance do not belong on this account to the tube zithers, but are round-bar zithers; however, instruments in which a tubular cavity is employed as a true resonator, like the modern Mexican harpa, are tube zithers

311.221 With one resonator gourd India (tuila), Celebes (suleppe)

311.222 With several resonator gourds India (vina)

312 Tube zithers The string bearer is a vaulted surface

312.1 Whole-tube zithers The string carrier is a complete tube

312.11 ldiochord (true) tube zithers Africa and Indonesia (gonra, togo, valiha)

312.12 Heterochord (true) tube zithers

312.121 Without extra resonator S.E.Asia (alligator)

312.122 With extra resonator An internode length of bamboo is placed inside a palm leaf tied in the shape of a bowl Timor

312.2 Half-tube zithers The strings are stretched along the convex surface of a gutter East Asia

312.21 ldiochord half-tube zithers Flores

312.22 Heterochord half-tube zithers E. Asia

313 Raft zithers The string bearer is composed of canes tied together in the manner of a raft

313.1 ldiochord raft zithers India, Upper Guinea, Central Congo

313.2 Heterochord raft zithers N. Malawi region

314 Board zithers The string bearer is a board; the ground too, is to be counted as such

314.1 True board zithers The plane of the strings is parallel with that of the string bearer

314.11 Without resonator Borneo

314.12 With resonator

314.121 With resonator bowl The resonator is a fruit shell or similar object, or an artificially carved equivalent Malawi region

314.122 With resonator box (box zither) The resonator is made from slats

NB This is true of the early piano only; modern pianos have no bottom and are board zithers. Harpsichords and some clavichords are box zithers Qin, koto, zither, Hackbrett, pianoforte

314.2 Board zither variations The plane of the strings is at right angles to the string bearer

314.21 Ground zithers The ground is the string bearer; there is only one string Malacca now West Malaysia, Madagascar

314.22 Harp zithers A board serves as string bearer; there are several strings and a notched bridge Borneo, Africa: Bokongo, harp zither from the Bambinga people of the Uele district, Congo-Kinshasa

315 Trough zithers The strings are stretched across the mouth of a trough Tanzania

315.1 Without resonator

315.2 With resonator The trough has a gourd or a similar object attached to it

316 Frame zithers The strings are stretched across an open frame

316.1 Without resonator Perhaps amongst medieval psalteries

316.2 With resonator W. Africa, amongst the Kru (kani)

32 Composite chordophones A string bearer and a resonator are organically united and cannot be separated without destroying the instrument

321 Lutes The plane of the strings runs parallel with the sound-table

321.1 Bow lutes [pluriarc] Each string has its own flexible carrier Africa (akam, kalangu, wambi)

321.2 Yoke lutes or lyres The strings are attached to a yoke which lies in the same plane as the sound-table and consists of two arms and a cross-bar

321.21 Bowl lyres A natural or carved-out bowl serves as the resonator Lyra, E. African lyre

321.22 Box lyres A built-up wooden box serves as the resonator Kithara, crwth

321.3 Handle lutes The string bearer is a plain handle. Subsidiary necks, as e.g. in the Indian prasarini vina are disregarded, as are also lutes with strings distributed over several necks, like the harpolyre, and those like the Lyre-guitars, in which the yoke is merely ornamental

321.31 Spike lutes The handle passes diametrically through or over^xix the resonator

321.311 Spike bowl lutes The resonator consists of a natural or carved-out bowl Iran, India, Indonesia

321.312 Spike box lutes or spike guitars The resonator is built up from wood, the body of the instrument is in the form of a box Banjo, Egypt (rebab)

321.313 Spike tube lutes The handle passes diametrically through the walls of a tube China, Indochina

321.32 Necked lutes The handle is attached to or carved from the resonator, like a neck

321.321 Necked bowl lutes Mandolin, theorbo, balalaika

321.322 Necked box lutes or necked guitars NB Lutes whose body is built up in the shape of a bowl are classified as bowl lutes Violin, viol, guitar

321.33 Half-spike lutes or tanged^xx lutes the handle is neither attached to the resonator nor passes all the way through it but terminates within the body W. Africa

321.331 Half-spike or tanged bowl lutes

321.332 Half-spike or tanged box lutes

322 Harps The plane of the strings lies at right angles to the sound-table; a line joining the lower ends of the strings would point towards the neck

322.1 Open harps The harp has no pillar

322.11 Arched harps The neck curves away from the resonator Burma [Myanmar] and Africa

322.111 Arched harps - Wachsmann  type 1 the neck rests on the bottom of the resonator ‘like a spoon in a cup’^xxi Uganda

322.112 Arched harps - Wachsmann type 2 the tanged neck fits tightly into a hole at the narrow end of the resonator ‘like a cork in a bottle’^xxii Democratic Republic of Congo, Zande, Nzakara, Banda, Mangebetu

322.113 Arched harps - Wachsmann type 3 a carved finial extends from the resonator, usually in the form of a human head; it is often tied to the neck. ^xxiiiGabon, Kele, Tsogo, Fang

322.12 Angular harps The neck makes a sharp angle with the resonator Assyria, Ancient Egypt, Ancient Korea, Mauretania (ardin)

322.2 Frame harps The harp has a pillar

322.21 Without tuning action All medieval harps

322.211 Diatonic frame harps

322.212 Chromatic frame harps

322.212.1 With the strings in one plane Most of the older chromatic harps

322.212.2 With the strings in two planes crossing one another The Lyon chromatic harp

322.212.3 With the strings in two or more parallel planes Triple harp

322.22 With tuning action The strings can be shortened by mechanical action

322.221 With manual action The tuning can be altered by hand-levers Hook harp, dital harp, harpinella

322.222 With pedal action The tuning can be altered by pedals

323 Spike harps with tall stringholders

The plane of the strings lies at right angles to the soundtable; a tall stringholder or bridge holds the strings at successive levels, their sounding lengths increasing with their distance from the soundtable; the body resembles a spike lute, with a neck bisecting a calabash resonator

323.1 Arched spike harps with tall stringholders the neck curves away from the resonator Guinea (bolon), Gambia (simbango)

323.2 Spike harps with pressure bridges (bridge harps or harp-lutes) a line joining the lower ends of the strings would be perpendicular to the straight neck, notched bridge Gambia (kora)

324 Tanged harps with tall stringholders a carved extension of the resonator forms the socket for the shaft of the neck^xxiv

33 Variable tension chordophones or ‘plucked drums’

331 With loose string attached to the drum-head India (anandalahari)

332 With string attached to the end of a neck and to the drum-head India (gopi yantra)

Suffixes for use with any division of chordophones:

-1 The vibrations are coupled with a transducer to create an electrical signal that is processed through an amplifier and loudspeaker (Applied only to instruments that have not been structurally modified or designed to be played through a loudspeaker; all these are classed as Electrophones in Group 5)

-11 With non-integral microphones

-12 With non-integral pickups

-2 Sounded by scraping

-21 Scraping the string devil’s fiddle

-22 Scraping the string bearer some musical bows

-3 Sounded by blowing !gora, aeolian harps

-4 Sounded by hammers or beaters

-5 Sounded with the bare fingers

-6 Sounded by plectrum

-7 Sounded by bowing

-71 With a bow

-72 By a wheel

-73 By a ribbon [Band]

-8 With keyboard

-9 With mechanical drive

These last two are secondary to -4 to -7 above; i.e. 314.122-6-8 would define the harpsichord

4 AEROPHONES The air itself is the vibrator in the primary sense. In this group also belong reed instruments sounded by a flow of air in which the reed is the primary vibrator

41 Free aerophones The vibrating air is not confined by the instrument

411 Displacement free aerophones The air-stream meets a sharp edge, or a sharp edge is moved through the air. In either case, according to more recent views, a periodic displacement of air occurs to alternate flanks of the edge Whip, sword-blade

412 Interruptive free aerophones The air-stream is interrupted periodically

412.1 Idiophonic interruptive aerophones or reeds The air-stream is directed against a lamella, setting it in periodic vibration to interrupt the stream intermittently. In this group also belong reeds with a ‘cover’, i.e. a tube in which the air vibrates only in a secondary sense, not producing the sound but simply adding roundness and timbre to the sound made by the reed’s vibration; generally recognizable by the absence of fingerholes Organ reed stops

412.11 Paired reeds Two lamellae make a gap which closes periodically during their vibration A split grass-blade

412.12 Beating reeds A single lamella periodically opens and closes an aperture

412.121 Individual beating reeds Brit. Columbia. Also single-note motor horn

412.122 Sets of beating reeds The earlier reed stops of organs

412.13 Free reeds The lamella vibrates through a closely-fitting slot

412.131 (Individual) free reeds

412.132 Sets of free reeds NB In instruments like the Chinese sheng the fingerholes do not serve to modify the pitch and are therefore not equivalent to the fingerholes of other pipes Reed organ, mouthorgan, accordion

412.14 Ribbon reeds The air-stream is directed against the edge of a stretched band or ribbon. The acoustics of this process has not yet been studied Brit. Columbia

412.15 Retreating reeds Elements naturally or artificially sprung together that separate periodically when blown Morocco, British Columbia^xxv

412.2 Non-idiophonic interruptive instruments The interruptive agent is not a reed

412.21 Rotating aerophones The interruptive agent rotates in its own plane Sirens, whirring disc

412.22 Whirling aerophones The interruptive agent turns on its axis Bullroarer, ventilating fan

The whirring disc rotates in its own plane and does not turn on its axis

413 Plosive aerophones The air is made to vibrate by a single density stimulus condensation shock

413.1 Explosive aerophones The air is forced out Pop guns

413.2 Implosive aerophones The air is forced in W.Africa, shantu

42 Wind instruments proper The vibrating air is confined within the instrument itself

420 Edge-tone instruments that are not flutes Widgeon whistles

421 Edge instruments or flutes A narrow stream of air is directed against an edge to excite a column of air in a tube or a body of air in a cavity

421.1 Flutes without duct The player himself creates a ribbon-shaped stream of air with his lips

421.11 End-blown flutes The player blows against the sharp rim at the upper open end of a tube

421.111 (Single) end-blown flutes

421.111.1 Open single end-blown flutes The lower end of the flute is open

421.111.11 Without fingerholes Bengal

421.111.12 With fingerholes Almost world-wide

421.111.2 Stopped single end-blown flutes The lower end of the flute is closed

421.111.21 Without fingerholes The bore of a key

421.111.211 Used in sets Lithuania, S.Africa Venda and others

421.111.22 With fingerholes Especially New Guinea

421.111.3 Partly-stopped single end-blown flutes

421.111.31 Partly-stopped single end-blown flutes without fingerholes

421.111.32 Partly-stopped single end-blown flutes with fingerholes

421.112 Sets of end-blown flutes or panpipes Several end-blown flutes of different pitch are combined to form a single instrument

421.112.1 Open panpipes

421.112.11 Open (raft) panpipes The pipes are tied together in the form of a board, or they are made by drilling tubes in a board China

421.112.12 Open bundle (pan-) pipes The pipes are tied together in a round bundle Solomon Is., New Britain, New Ireland, Admiralty Is.

NB This is misprinted as 421.112.2 in GSJ

421.112.2 Stopped panpipes Europe, S. America

421.112.3 Mixed open and stopped panpipes Solomon Is., S. America

421.12 Side-blown flutes The player blows against the sharp rim of a hole in the side of the tube

421.121 (Single) side-blown flutes

421.121.1 Open side-blown flutes

421.121.11 Without fingerholes S. W. Timor

421.121.12 With fingerholes European flute

421.121.2 Partly-stopped side-blown flutes The lower end of the tube is a natural node of the pipe pierced by a small hole N. W. Borneo

421.121.3 Stopped side-blown flutes

421.121.31 Without fingerholes

421.121.311 With fixed stopped lower end Apparently non-existent

421.121.312 With adjustable stopped lower end (piston flutes) Malacca, New Guinea

421.121.32 With fingerholes E. Bengal, Malacca

421.122 Sets of side-blown flutes

421.122.1 Sets of open side-blown flutes Chamber flute-orum

421.122.2 Sets of stopped side-blown flutes N. W. Brazil (among the Siusi)

421.13 Vessel flutes (without distinct beak) The body of the pipe is not tubular but vessel-shaped Brazil (Karaja), Lower Congo (Bafiote)

421.14 Notch flutes The player blows into a notch at the top of the tube (treat as 421.11)

421.141 (Single) notch flutes

421.141.1 Open single notch flutes

421.141.11 Open single notch flutes without fingerholes

421.141.12 Open single notch flutes with fingerholes

421.141.2 Stopped single notch flutes

421.141.21 Stopped single notch flutes without fingerholes

421.141.211 Stopped notch flutes without fingerholes used in sets

421.141.22 Stopped single notch flutes with fingerholes

421.142 Sets of notch flutes or panpipes

421.142.1 Open sets of notch-flutes or panpipes

421.142.2 Stopped sets of notch-flutes or panpipes

421.2 Flutes with duct or duct flutes A narrow duct directs the air stream against the sharp edge of a lateral orifice

421.21 Flutes with external duct The duct is outside the wall of the flute; this group includes flutes with the duct chamfered in the wall under a ring-like sleeve and other similar arrangements

421.211 (Single) flutes with external duct

421.211.1 Open flutes with external duct

421.211.11 Without fingerholes China, Borneo

421.211.12 With fingerholes Indonesia

421.211.2 Partly-stopped flutes with external duct Malacca

421.211.3 Stopped flutes with external duct

421.212 Sets of flutes with external duct Tibet

(subdivisions as for single flutes with external duct)

421.22 Flutes with internal duct The duct is inside the tube. (Flutes with duct formed by an internal baffle [natural node, block of resin] and an exterior tied-on cover [cane, wood, hide] are classed as 421.23)

421.221 (Single) flutes with internal duct

421.221.1 Open flutes with internal duct

421.221.11 Without fingerholes European signalling whistle

421.221.12 With fingerholes Recorder, flageolet

421.221.2 Partly-stopped flute with internal duct India and Indonesia

421.221.3 Stopped flutes with internal duct

421.221.31 Without fingerholes

421.221.311 With fixed stopped lower end European signalling whistle

421.221.312 With adjustable stopped lower end Piston pipes [swanee whistle]

421.221.32 Stopped flutes with internal duct with fingerholes Morocco

421.221.4 Vessel flutes with duct

421.221.41 Without fingerholes Zoomorphic pottery whistles (Europe, Asia)

421.221.42 With fingerholes

421.221.421 With single fingerhole Dog whistles etc

421.221.422 With two or more fingerholes Ocarina

421.222 Sets of flutes with internal duct

421.222.1 Sets of open flutes with internal duct

421.222.11 Without fingerholes Open flue stops of the organ

421.222.12 With fingerholes Double flageolet

421.222.2 Sets of partly-stopped flutes with internal duct Rohrflöte stops of the organ

421.222.3 Sets of stopped flutes with internal duct Stopped flue stops of the organ

421.222.4 Sets of dissimilar flutes with internal duct Two or more flutes of more than one kind (open, partly stopped or stopped) are combined to form a set.

421.23 Flutes with internal duct formed by an internal baffle (natural, node, block of resin) plus an external duct American Plains, S.E.Asia, Indonesia

422 Reedpipes The column of air is made to vibrate by the intermittent access of an air stream produced by means of a lamella or lamellae

422.1 Reedpipes with double (or quadruple) reeds (oboes) The pipe has a reed (usually a flattened stem) of paired lamellae which periodically open and close, controlling the flow of air^xxvi

422.11 (Single) reedpipes with double (or quadruple) reeds

422.111 With cylindrical bore

422.111.1 Without fingerholes Brit. Columbia

422.111.2 With fingerholes Aulos, crumhorn

422.112 With conical bore European oboe

422.12 Sets of reedpipes with double (or quadruple) reeds

422.121 With cylindrical bore Double aulos

422.122 With conical bore India

422.2 Reedpipes with single reeds (clarinets) The pipe has a [single] ‘reed’ consisting of a lamella which periodically opens and closes an aperture, controlling the flow of air

422.21 Individual reedpipes with single reeds

422.211 With cylindrical bore

422.211.1 Without fingerholes Brit. Columbia

422.211.2 With fingerholes European clarinet

422.212 With conical bore Saxophone

422.22 Sets of reedpipes with single reeds Egypt (zummara)

422.3 Reedpipes with a reed which vibrates through a closely fitted frame. The air column must be the dominant partner in determining the frequency of vibration, as is the case for instruments with fingerholes, otherwise the instrument belongs to the free reeds 412.13

422.31 Single reedpipes with free reeds

422.32 Double reedpipes with free reeds

422.33 Horns with free reed Burma [Myanmar]

422.4 Dilating reeds Grass and similar stems with one or more longitudinal slits. The ‘reed’ area is wholly enclosed within the mouth

422.41 Dilating reeds without fingerholes^xxvii

422.42 Dilating reeds with fingerholes Sami (fadno) ^xxviii

423 Labrosones (or lip-reed instruments)The air-stream passes through the player’s vibrating lips, so gaining intermittent access to the air column which is to be made to vibrate

423.1 Natural labrosones Without extra devices to alter pitch other than lengths of tube (crooks etc.) to set the nominal pitch preparatory to playing

423.11 Conches A conch shell serves as a labrosone

423.111 End-blown

423.111.1 Without mouthpiece India

423.111.2 With mouthpiece (material has been added to the tube to form a mouthpiece) Japan (rappakai)

423.112 Side-blown Oceania

423.12 Tubular labrosones

423.121 End-blown labrosones

423.121.1 End-blown straight labrosones The tube is neither curved nor folded

423.121.11 Without mouthpiece Some alphorns

423.121.12 With mouthpiece (material has been added to the tube to form a mouthpiece) Almost world-wide

423.121.2 End-blown labrosones with curved or folded tubes

423.121.21 Without mouthpiece Asia

423.121.22 With mouthpiece (material has been added to the tube to form a mouthpiece) Lurs

423.122 Side-blown labrosones The embouchure is in the side of the tube

423.122.1 Side-blown straight labrosones S. America, Africa

423.122.2 Side-blown curved labrosones Africa

423.2 Chromatic labrosones With extra devices to alter the pitch while playing

423.21 Labrosones with fingerholes Cornetti, key bugles

423.211 With cylinder bore Key trumpet

423.212 With [narrow] conical bore Cornetti

423.213 With [wider] conical bore Key bugles, serpents

423.22 Slide trumpets The tube can be lengthened by extending a telescopic section of the instrument whilst it is played. (This category includes slide trombones with one or two thumb valves) European trombone

423.23 Labrosones with valves The tube is lengthened or shortened by connecting or disconnecting auxiliary lengths of tube Europe

423.231 Valve bugles The tube is predominantly conical

423.231.1 With narrow bore

423.231.11 With short air column (less than 2m) NB some Eastern European flugel horns have a wider bore but can be included here with Western European narrow bore instrumens Flugel horn

423.231.12 With long air column (more than 2m) Wagner tuba

423.231.2 With wide bore Euphonium, tuba

423.232 Valve horns The tube is of intermediate bore profile

423.232.1 With narrow bore

423.232.11 With short air column (less than 2m) Cornet, F alto horn, B flat altissimo horn

423.232.12 With long air column (more than 2m) Most French horns

423.232.2 With wider bore Althorn; tenor and baritone saxhorns

423.233 Valve trumpets The tube is predominantly cylindrical

423.233.1 With short air column (less than 2m) Most valve trumpets

423.233.2 With long air column (more than 2m) Most valve trombones

424 Membranopipes The column of air is made to vibrate by the intermittent access of an air stream produced by means of a membrane that periodically opens and closes an aperture

Suffixes for use with any division of this class (aerophones):

-1 The vibrations are coupled with a transducer to create an electrical signal that is processed through an amplifier and loudspeaker (Applied only to instruments that have not been structurally modified or designed to be played through a loudspeaker; all these are classed as Electrophones in Group 5)

-11 With non-integral microphones

-12 With non-integral pickups

-4 With lengths of tube (crooks etc.) to set nominal pitches preparatory to playing

-5 With wind-cap

-6 With air reservoir

-61 With rigid air reservoir

-62 With flexible air reservoir

-7 With fingerhole stopping

-71 With keys

-72 With Bandmechanik [presumably a perforated roll or ribbon]

-8 With keyboard

-9 With mechanical drive

We can cover ‘Natural labrosones’ that have a fingerhole, such Fijian conches and African sideblown horns, by using the suffix -7

5 ELECTROPHONES Instruments that use materials generating acoustic sounds, mechanically-driven signal sources, electronically stored data or electronic circuitry to produce electrical signals that are passed to a loudspeaker to deliver sound. (Unmodified acoustic instruments with attached microphones or pickups are classed within groups 1-4, according to the primary source of sound.)

51 Electro-acoustic instruments and devices Modules and configurations of acoustic, vibratory mechanisms (often resembling traditional acoustic instruments) and electronic circuitry such as transducers and amplifiers. The acoustic or mechanical vibration is transduced into an analogue fluctuation of an electric current. All instruments built or structurally modified to deliver a signal to an amplifier and loudspeaker are classed as electrophones, even if they have some capability of sounding acoustically

511 Electro-acoustic idiophones Fender-Rhodes, Wurlitzer electric piano, Hohner Electra Piano

512 Electro-acoustic membranophones

513 Electro-acoustic chordophones Electric guitar, Neo-Bechstein electric piano, Yamaha Electric Grand, electric violin

514 Electro-acoustic aerophones

515 Transducers Microphones, pick-ups, loudspeakers

52 Electromechanical instruments and devices Configurations of (electrically excited) silent, mechanical moving parts with encoded patterns, and electronic circuitry. The movement enables the encoded patterns to be transduced into an analogue fluctuation of an electric current

521 Tone wheel instruments Electromagnetic, electrostatic, photoelectric etc.) Hammond tone wheel organ

522 Photoelectric electromechanical instruments

523 Record/playback devices (Electromechanical, electromagnetic etc.), Tape recorder EMI BTR/2

524 Electromechanical samplers Mellotron, Chamberlin

525 Electromechanical sound processing devices Spring line reverberation unit, tape echo (Watkins/WEM CopiCat tape echo unit)

53 Analogue electronic instruments, modules and components Continuously varying electrical signals are passed to a loudspeaker to produce sound. The electrical signals are generated using electronic circuitry. Modules and configurations containing analogue fully electronic devices used to produce, process and communicate electronic sound signals and/or sequences of signals

531 Analogue synthesizers and other electronic instruments with thermionic valve (vacuum-tube) or solid state circuitry (transistor and/or analogue integrated circuitry) generating and/or processing electric sound signals

531.1 Analogue synthesizers and other electronic instruments with electronic valve/vacuum tube based devices generating and/or processing electric sound signals Trautonium, Theremin, ondes Martenot, Ondioline, Clavioline

531.2 Analogue synthesizers and other electronic instruments with solid state circuitry transistor and/or integrated circuitry) generating and processing electric sound signals

531.21 Analogue synthesizers with solid state circuitry based devices generating and processing electric sound signals using additive synthesis

531.22 Analogue synthesizers with solid state circuitry based devices generating and processing electric sound signals using subtractive synthesis

531.221 Modular analogue synthesizers with solid state circuitry based devices generating and processing electric sound signals using subtractive synthesis

531.222  Preset analogue synthesizers with solid state circuitry based devices generating and processing electric sound signals using subtractive synthesis

531.222.1 Preset, monophonic analogue synthesizers with solid state circuitry based devices generating and processing electric sound signals using subtractive synthesis

531.222.2 Preset, partially or fully polyphonic analogue synthesizers with solid state circuitry based devices generating and processing electric sound signals using subtractive synthesis

531.23 Analogue synthesizers using hybrid subtractive and additive synthesis

532 Voltage control sources

532.1 Voltage control sources - control voltage sequence generators (Envelope generator, low frequency oscillator, sequencer, slew generator, peak amplitude follower/envelope follower, sample and hold) Analogue sequencer

532.2 Voltage control sources - controllers and interfaces Human interface devices, keyboards, foot switches, sensors, wheels, touchpad

533 Other analogue modules or configurations

533.1 Analogue modules audio signal generators; analogue signal combining, modifying, reproducing and processing devices

533.11 Analogue modules: audio signal generators (oscillators producing sine, square and saw tooth waves, beat frequency oscillator and heterodyne systems); Ring modulator

533.12 Analogue modules: signal modifiers or processors analogue signal combining, modifying, reproducing and processing devices (mixers, sum/difference/multiple output generator etc. timbre modifier, filter devices; amplitude modifier, amplifier device, reverb modifier)

533.2 Analogue configurations: mixer consoles (also containing filters, ring modulators etc.), sequencer based configurations, experimental configurations, sound sculptures BBC Mark III Radio Mixing Desk, Funktionsgenerator

533.3 Modules communicating between devices/signal convertors other than transducers

54 Digital instruments, modules and components. Electrical signals are generated in the form of quantized sequences of pulses. These are converted to continuous signals that activate a loudspeaker. Modules and configurations containing devices to digitally design and process electronic sound signals and/or sequences of signals

541 Digital synthesizers

541.1 Digital synthesizers using frequency modulation synthesis

541.11 Digital synthesizers using frequency modulation synthesis without fixed keyboard controllers

541.12 Digital synthesizers using frequency modulation synthesis with fixed keyboard controllers Yamaha DX7

541.2 Digital Synthesizers using additive synthesis

541.21 Digital Synthesizers using additive synthesis without fixed keyboard controllers

541.22 Digital Synthesizers using additive synthesis with fixed keyboard controllers Kawai K5

541.3 Digital synthesizers using phase distortion techniques

541.31 Digital synthesizers using phase distortion techniques without fixed keyboard controllers

541.32 Digital synthesizers using phase distortion techniques with fixed keyboard controllers Casio CZ series

541.4 Digital synthesizers using physical modelling techniques

541.41 Digital synthesizers using physical modelling techniques without fixed keyboard controllers

541.42 Digital synthesizers using physical modelling techniques with fixed keyboard controllers Yamaha VL70

542 Digital control sources and interfaces Human interface devices, keyboards, joy-sticks/wheels, touchpad/touch screen, foot switches, sensors, detectors of environmental change.^xxix Digital sequencer, MIDI controller

543 Digital signal mixing, modifying, reproducing and processing devices Timbre modifier, filter device, amplitude modifier, amplifier device, reverb modifier Mixer, PA, digital delay, Effects box

544 Digital samplers and sampling synthesizers Korg DSS-1

545 Digital record/playback devices

546 Other digital modules, components or configurations

547 Digital modules communicating between devices/signal convertors

55 Hybrid analogue/digital configurations Devices with analogue oscillators and digital filters etc.

56 Software